Failure of the Schlieffen Plan Essay -- Papers

Failure of the Schlieffen Plan In just over a month of fighting, two deeply disturbing features of the war were evident even to the generals who had unleashed the first campaigns: a quick victory was impossible, and the human and material losses incurred as a result of the industrialization of war preparation were on a scale never before seen. The Schlieffen plan had at first seemed to go according to schedule. Although the Belgians had declared war rather than allow the Germans passage across their borders, their great fortresses had not proved a big obstacle. The right wing had swung along the Channel coast to enter France on August 27, and at one time were within forty miles of Paris. But the British had supplied an unexpectedly large expeditionary force, which helped strengthen the French center; the Russians penetrated into East Prussia and thus compelled the Germans to detach part of their forces from the western to the eastern front; and the poor leadership of Von Moltke had allowed his two armies on the Belgian front to lose contact. The French commander Joffre seized his opportunity to counterattack, and threw in his reserve against the dangerously extended German line to the east of Paris. In the first Battle of the Marne, the Germans were forced to retreat to the line of the river Aisne, where they were able to establish a strong defense line. By November, when the winter rains began and operations literally bogged down, the war of rapid movement originally planned by the generals had turned into a slogging match between entrenched armies, disposed in double lines of ditches behind barbed wire barriers along a front that ... ...ternate fire-bays and traverses. Duck-boards were also placed at the bottom of the trenches to protect soldiers from problems such as trench foot. Soldiers also made dugouts and funk holes in the side of the trenches to give them some protection from the weather and enemy fire. The front-line trenches were also protected by barbed-wire entanglements and machine-gun posts. Short trenches called saps were dug from the front-trench into No-Man's Land. The sap-head, usually about 30 yards forward of the front-line, were then used as listening posts. Behind the front-line trenches were support and reserve trenches. The three rows of trenches covered between 200 and 500 yards of ground. Communication trenches, were dug at an angle to the frontline trench and was used to transport men, equipment and food supplies.

Youth Policy Kazakhstan

Introduction It is 8 o’clock in the morning. The alarm clock rings and everybody in the house wakes up. Kids get ready for school, adults go to work. Only Almas is not in a hurry, it has been six months since he graduated from university and cannot find a job that suits him. While studying at university everything seemed so easy: â€Å"Graduate, find a good job, become rich†. However, in reality, getting a job came out to be not as easy as he expected. Youth unemployment is one of the problems in the world nowadays.The percentage of unemployed young people in Kazakhstan is equal to 28. 6% (â€Å" †, 2006). This means that the big portion of youth cannot find proper jobs. It is a recognized fact that unemployment is one of the dynamics through which the social condition of a country can be defined. First of all, how can â€Å"youth† be defined? Youth is considered as either a phase of life or as a social category. The phase of life refers to youth being th e period between childhood and adulthood. In this report I will consider young people at the age of 20 to 24.Secondly, what is considered as â€Å"unemployment†? According to Investopedia (2012), unemployment is â€Å"when a person who is actively searching for employment is unable to find work†. According to the United Nations Economic Committee for Europe (UNECE, 2011), youth unemployment was one of the drivers of the worldwide financial crisis in 2008. Thus, a governmental youth policy is one of the main policy directions in which a lot of countries all over the world are trying to improve nowadays. The Republic of Kazakhstan is also in the list of these states.The attitude of the Kazakhstani government to young people is seen in the law â€Å"About governmental youth policy† ?581 from 7th of July 2004 (Kazahstanskaya Pravda, 2004). This law points out that youth are the future of the republic and this law is created to reduce the number of unemployed youth. According to the Agency of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2003) the percentage of youth of the overall population was equal to 29. 1% in 2003 (cited in: A Social Portrait of Young People in Today’s Kazakhstan, 2006).This means that the youth is a significant fraction of the country’s population. Nowadays, young people face difficulties in receiving health service, good education, employment housing and other social issues. By providing support to this portion of the population and paying more attention to the development of youth policy, the Kazakhstani government could give the country an opportunity to build the basis for the brighter future for Kazakhstan. The main research question of this report is: What factors are contributing to youth unemployment?I will be investigating the reason young people cannot find jobs; despite the fact that the government is making everything they can to reduce the number of unemployed young people. As I am graduating soon this issue has a direct connection to me, so I also want to find out what can I do to avoid this problem. In order to answer the key research question I will follow the three research objectives. Firstly, as I have written in the previous paragraphs young people have a huge influence on the economy of any country.That is why I will analyze the current economic, social and political situation in Kazakhstan. Secondly, I will estimate the effectiveness of youth policy of the government in Kazakhstan. Finally, I will consider the opinions of young people on the issue of youth unemployment. The research project will consist of a survey and interviews. Questionnaires will be distributed among the alumni students of universities as Kazakhstan Institute of Economics, Management and Strategic Research (KIMEP), University of International Business (UIB), Kazakh-British Technical University (KBTU) and others.The reason I’m choosing exactly Kazakh-British Technical University (KBTU) and others. The re ason I’m choosing exactly this kind of survey is that results are likely to be objective because of to the anonymity of the surveyed people. Moreover, through questionnaires I will be able to gather information from a significant amount of people in a short time. The surveys are planned to be held during the midterm break (October, 2012). The representatives of such governmental youth organizations such as KIMEP Students Association (KSA) and â€Å"Zhas Otan† Youth Political Party will be interviewed.I will interview them, as they know the problem from the inside: from the governmental point of view. Also, they are university graduates, so they can analyze the problem by combining the two different sides. Interviews are helpful, as during the interview I will be able to ask questions I’m interested in and find new information from the knowledge and experiences of the representatives. Interviews will also be held in October, 2012. The first paragraph of this repo rt gives information on the general background of research problem and also identifies the main research uestion. Moreover, introduction includes the short description of the research methods. It also consists of the work plan. The second section addresses the literature review, which is based on the information collected from academic articles of Google Scholar databases, EBSCOhost, magazines, Kazakhstani newspapers, different Internet resources, and books. The third chapter covers the data and methodology information. The next chapter focuses on the analysis of received data and its discussion. The last chapter is the conclusion. It summarizes the done work.The sources used and gathered are provided in the bibliography section. Each section is approximately from four to seven pages. References: Eshpanova D. D. & Nysanbaev A. N. (2006). A Social Portrait of Young People in Today’s Kazakhstan. Russian Education and Society, 48, 75-96. Retrieved from EBSCOhost Database  « ? ?  » 7 2004 #581 (Law of the Republic of Kazakhstan â€Å"about Governmental youth policy in the Republic of Kazakhstan† July 7, 2004, ?581).Kazahstanskaya Pravda, 158. (The problem of unemployment amoung young people). (2006). Zakon. Retrieved from http://www. zakon. kz/77840-obsuzhdeny-problemy-bezraboticy-sredi. html United Nations Economic Committee (2011). Men are more affected by rising youth unemployment in most UNECE countries. Retrieved 10, September, 2012, from: http://www. unece. org/statshome/news/newsyouth-uneployment-rate. html

The Dangers Of The Cell Phone While Driving - 2183 Words

On any given day, millions of Americans are driving on the roads. There are truck drivers; family’s going on vacations, and many other people that share the roads. Everyone just wants to get to their location safely, but sadly, this always doesn’t happen. Each year thousands of Americans are killed due to distracted driving, even more are injured. It’s a dangerous problem that is getting larger by the day. One type of distracted driving that is more prevalent is talking on the cell phone. Everyone is affected by this type of distracted driving because they are exposed to it every day. The use of the cell phone while driving has the ability to dramatically impact a person’s reaction time. It takes a person’s eyes off the road, which is something that should never happen. In turn, this could increase the risk of them causing a car crash. The public does want the roads to be safe for themselves and their families. The United States government and other state agencies have been studying ways to reduce this destructive trend. One way they have been discussing is making talking on a cell phone while driving illegal. This is a very straight forward way of attacking the issue. By doing this, they can effectively help to prevent further injuries or deaths. This is an enormous task to accomplish, but doing this is better than doing nothing. Banning the use of cell phones while driving is advantageous for citizenry because eliminating anything that distracts a person from driving hasShow MoreRelatedCell Phone Dangers While Driving1046 Words   |  5 PagesCell-Phone Dangers While Driving Introduction Today, we use our cell phones for just about anything and everything to include; texting, talking to our loved ones, and connecting with the rest of the world via social media. Cell phones have become a natural way of life to where we pick up our phones and use them like second nature. However, the dangers present themselves when we get behind the wheel of a car and carry these habits of cell phone addictions with us. If all states ban the use of cellRead More Cell Phones And Driving: Dangers Involved with Cell Phone Use While Driving1036 Words   |  5 Pagesoften. Talking on the cell phone and driving has become a very popular thing these days. Technology is coming out with the newest phones that can do everything for you and people are attracted to that. There are people that don’t have hands free and drive their car with only one hand, people that text and totally take their eye off the road and type conversations to each other. Bluetooth is another technological breakth rough where you wear an ear piece and can receive phone calls by one touch ofRead MoreEssay on The Dangers of Cell Phone Use While Driving604 Words   |  3 PagesFor years, people who driving under influence leading causes of road accidents in many countries. Many people have a cell phone and some even call their cell phone their life line. The cell phone is a provider of very important information such as addresses, phone numbers, and important dates. However, while the cell phone has many positive attributes like keeping people in touch, the cell phone becomes very dangerous when a person decides to drive and use it.This obliged many countries especiallyRead MoreDangers of Cell Phone Use While Driving Essay1306 Words   |  6 Pageslast few decades, the use of cell phones has become a very common tool. Furthermore, Technology has certainly advanced, and the cell phone is becoming the most preferred mode of communication. The demand for a cell phone is growing every day. In add ition, the use of wireless technology is affordable, and anyone can buy a cell phone at a reasonable price. They come in all shapes and sizes. They range from black to bright metallic white. American public use of cell phones is increasing everyday. AsRead MoreDangers of Cell Phone Use While Driving562 Words   |  2 Pages It has been reported that roughly 660,000 U.S citizens use their cell phones while driving on a daily basis. You are four times more likely to get into an accident if you are talking on your cell phone and twenty-three times more likely to get into a car crash if you are texting while driving. Reports have also shown that 11% of drivers who are between the ages of 15-19 were distracted at the time of a fatal crash. A cell phone distracted 21% of those drivers at the time of the fatal crash. Of theRead MoreCell Phones in the Hands of Drivers:1096 Words   |  5 PagesCell Phones in the Hands of Drivers: A Risk or a Benefit? As of 2000, there were about ninety million cell phone users in the United States, with 85% of them using their phones while on the road (Sundeen 1). Because of evidence that cell phones impair drivers by distracting them, some states have considered laws restricting their use in moving vehicles. Proponents of legislation correctly point out that using phones while driving can be dangerous. The extent of the danger, however, is a matterRead MoreThe Epidemic of Texting and Driving Essay1478 Words   |  6 PagesAutomobile crashes as a result of texting while driving is an epidemic that has taken over the nation in the past years. In today’s society, people have become more and more dependent on technology as everyday uses. How many can honestly say that they have text and driven? How many have had to swerve, stop on the brakes or almost gotten into an accident because of it? Texting while driving is the most common thing that almost everyone has done or seen. The main iss ue and threat is that peopleRead MoreCell Phones in the Hands of Drivers: a Risk or Benefit?1570 Words   |  7 PagesCell Phones in the Hands of Drivers A Risk or a Benefit Ariana Laguna English 102 Professor Barnes/Walter 10 December 2012 Outline THESIS: Unless the risks of cell phones are shown to outweigh the benefits, we should not restrict their use in moving vehicles: instead, we should educate the public about the dangers of driving while phoning and prosecute irresponsible phone users under laws on negligent and reckless driving. I. Scientific studies havent proved a link between use ofRead MoreThe Dangers Of Texting While Driving1561 Words   |  7 PagesEnglish 015 18 September 2014 â€Å"Almost Home† With the society we live in today, a cell phone almost becomes a necessity. Although cell phones come in handy and even make life a little easier, our cell phone usage is becoming a threat to us. There are several ways in which this powerful object can be dangerous. Texting while driving is one danger many do not realize until something drastic happens. Texting while driving is not only a threat to us, but as well as other drivers, passengers, and pedestriansRead MoreCell Phones While Driving Essay642 Words   |  3 PagesCell Phones and Driving In today’s society we’ve all become attached to our cell phones. Cell phones make our lives easier in many ways we can check our email, receive phone calls, send text messages, listen to music, and take pictures, all at our finger tips. With all this convenience, however there is a dangerous side to cell phones, and that’s when we use them while driving. Most of us are guilty of using cell phones while driving, but have we ever thought about its danger? Five states plus

A Comparison of Country and City Life in Alan Patons Cry...

The country and the city life depicted in Alan Patons novel Cry, The Beloved Country portray two different aspects of life in South Africa in the later half of the 1940s. The country life in the book is Ndotsheni and the city life is Johannesburg. Neither country life or city life would be considered perfect. Both living areas enjoyed positive aspects and negative drawbacks. The country was looked at as the backward part of South Africa, and the city was looked at as the advanced part of South Africa. For the most part though people living in the country would rater stay in the country, and those who make their living in the city would rather live there. These two parts of the country were only separated by a days worth of travel on†¦show more content†¦The Africans of Ndotsheni were backward people. They did have a school, but there were only teaching the same principles that had been passed on for generations. They were an uneducated people, as far as it would have been t hought in the European sense of education. Family plays an important role to the tribes of Ndotsheni. The whole tribe looks after each other as if they were one large family. When a person is sick the whole community prays for a quick recovery. The community was anything but modern at this time. They little of modern technology and saw very few motorized vehicles. Quite a bit different from the life in Ndotsheni was the city life of Johannesburg. This was an industrial city thriving off the mining of gold deposits. The white man was making a fortune off of the gold industry. The city was home to mostly all Afrikaners. The surrounding suburbs were where Africans were able to buy land or set up in shantytowns. This type of housing was barely decent enough to be called a home. In a suburb such as Claremont it is shabby and dirty, and the streets are filled with filth. In these areas is where loose women and criminals tended to live or hide out in. These are also the areas where the black children did not attend school either because they do not care or their parents do not care, or the schools are full. (59) The whites of the cityShow MoreRelated Cry the Beloved Country Movie versus Film Essay1055 Words   |  5 Pages Cry, the Beloved Country is a moving story of the Zulu pastor Stephen Kumalo and his son Absalom. They live in an Africa torn apart by racial tensions and hate. It is based on a work of love and hope, courage, and endurance, and deals with the dignity of man. The author lived and died (1992) in South Africa and was one of the greatest writers of that country. His other works include Too Late the Phalarope, Ah, but Your Land Is Beautiful, and Tales from a Troubled Land. The book was made

Pat Barkers Regeneration Essay - 1105 Words

Pat Barkers Regeneration Pat Barkers Regeneration focuses on the troubled soldiers mental status during World War One. Barker introduces the feelings soldiers had about the war and militarys involvement with the war effort. While Regeneration mainly looks at the male perspective, Barker includes a small but important female presence. While Second Lieutenant Billy Prior breaks away from Craiglockhart War Hospital for an evening, he finds women at a cafe in the Edinburgh district (Barker 86). He comes to the understanding that the women are munitions workers. Womens involvement in war work in Regeneration shows the potential growth in womens independence, but at the expense of restrictions placed on men while they were on the†¦show more content†¦Even by supporting equal pay, women still earned less then their male counterparts, but found the pay much higher than the domestic jobs they left. Equal pay may not have been as equal as women hoped, but their experience and reason for working in the factori es allowed them to feel more distinguished than working in domesticated services. While men argued against women working in factories, the women were taking full strides to prove their strength and abilities while working under harsh and almost unbearable conditions. Women worked long hours exposed to chemicals and explosives that caused damaging health conditions. The most noticeable health problem came from TNT poisoning that caused jaundice (Robb 43). The symptoms women suffered were pains below the xiphisternum, loss of appetite, nausea, constipation, dermatitis, irritability, depression, and some change in menstruation (Thom 124). Under harsh conditions, women continued to prove their abilities though suffering with health ailments. Barker introduces Sarah Lumb, Lizzy, Madge, and Betty as munition-ettes in order to show the experiences of the home front effort in the plot (Barker 87). Barker uses Sarah to help Billy Prior and readers understand the monotonous, harsh conditions of the factories, and a womans desire to expand her economic status. In this scene, readers are presented with Sarahs background as a servant who finds munitions work more reliable forShow MoreRelated Pat Barkers Regeneration1667 Words   |  7 Pagesthat society began to see the emergence of contraception and its acceptance. Readers can also see its emergence in Regeneration on page 128, as Billy Prior propositions his new love interest by stating he always paddles with me boots on, a reference to the fact that he, as an army man, always wears contraception when having intercourse. With this background, we can now see how Pat Barker uses this brief cultural reference to remind readers of the history of contraception for both men and wome nRead More Heritage and Identity in Pat Barkers Regeneration1563 Words   |  7 PagesThe presence of Jews in England has been a source of controversy for many reasons. On page 35 of Pat Barkers historical novel Regeneration, Siegfried Sassoon reveals the nature of his relationship with his father, who left home when he was five, and gives an account of his Jewish history. Though he hadnt been raised Jewish and apparently had no association with his Jewish relatives, Sassoon was subjected to the discrimination that was often seen in England before and during WWI. Through SassoonsRead More Courage in Pat Barkers Regeneration Essay1763 Words   |  8 PagesCourage in Pat Barkers Regeneration During the Vietnam War, many Americans decided to choose conscientious objector status and serve the war effort in non-combative ways; others moved to Canada, leaving their families, their communities, and their nation because of strong political convictions. While some said these people were cowards and a disgrace to their families and their nation, others argued that those had just as much courage as the men on the front lines. Although moving to CanadaRead MorePortrayal of Role of Women in Society in Pat Barkers Regeneration1223 Words   |  5 PagesRegeneration focuses on troubled soldiers mental states during WW1. The Craiglockhart setting allows Barker to explore the psychological effects of warfare on men who went to fight and also their feelings about the war and the military s involvement in it. While the focus of the novel is firmly on the male perspective (indeed Barker claimed she had partly chosen this novel to prove she could do men as well as women ), there is a sma ll but important female presence. When WW1 began in 1914Read MorePat Barkers Regeneration, Wilfred Owens Poetry and Joseph Hellers Catch-223081 Words   |  13 PagesExplore the psychological and moral impact of war on soldiers and civilians in Pat Barkers Regeneration and Wilfred Owens poetry. In the course of your writing show how your ideas have been illuminated by your response to Joseph Hellers Catch-22 and other readings of both core texts. Pat Barkers Regeneration, Wilfred Owens poetry and Joseph Hellers Catch-22 can all be categorised as subjective war texts  as the main structural principle is not dominated by characters actions, but ratherRead More Comparing Irony of War in Dulce et Decorum, Regeneration, and Quiet on the Western Front1165 Words   |  5 PagesIrony of War Exposed in Dulce et Decorum, Regeneration, and Quiet on the Western Front    Many of the young officers who fought in the Great War enlisted in the army with glowing enthusiasm, believing that war was played in fancy uniforms with shiny swords. They considered war as a noble task, an exuberant journey filled with honor and glory. Yet, after a short period on the front, they discovered that they had been disillusioned by the war: fighting earned them nothing but hopelessness, deathRead MoreComparing the Ways Michael Herr in Dispatches and Pat Barker in Regeneration Show the Effects of War2879 Words   |  12 PagesComparing the Ways Michael Herr in Dispatches and Pat Barker in Regeneration Show the Effects of War When comparing Michael Herrs Dispatches and Regeneration by Pat Barker the differences in format, style and setting are clear from the outset. However both books explore the horrifying effect of war on those directly and indirectly involved. The two authors attempt to take the reader away from objective, statistical impressions of war and closer to the real experiencesRead MoreRepresentations Of Gender And Masculinity1503 Words   |  7 PagesRepresentations of gender and masculinity in Pat Barker s Regeneration. One of the major themes in Pat barker’s ‘Regeneration’ is gender and masculinity, this is my chosen theme. The novel overall reflects the struggles of World War one soldiers and their attempts to overcome the trauma of war experience. In this essay, I will be exploring ways which Barker represents my chosen themes. By discussing in depth and focusing on homosexuality, parenthood, emasculation, and mutism as a symbol. A keyRead MoreAnalysis Of Pat Barker s Night 2568 Words   |  11 Pagesanalyzing speak about the idea of mental health or war trauma during World War I and World War II, instead of calling it PTSD the authors call is shell shock, which is close to the definition of PTSD. The two books that I am analyzing is Pat Barker s Regeneration, which is focused on a mental institution and how soldiers deal with shell shock and many other internal struggles. The second is Elie Wiesel’s book Night, which speaks about a family that is taken to a concentration camp and is dealingRead MoreEmasculation Essay882 Words   |  4 Pagesï » ¿How does Pat Barker use symbolism in the novel Regeneration to explore the theme of emasculation? The theme emasculation appears several times throughout the novel Regeneration in variety of forms. Barker’s exploration of emasculation in the novel challenges traditional notions of manliness, showing war as a possible â€Å"feminine† experience. Pat Barker is bringing to attention that the atrocities suffered at war are making the soldiers unmanly as they’re facing shell shock and trauma. There are many

Review of Warwick Debates on Nationalism free essay sample

On October 24th, 1995, two of the best-known scholars of nationalism participated in what has now become known as the â€Å"Warwick Debate on Nationalism† under the host of Edward Mortimer at the Warwick University. Each respected speaker presented thoughts and approaches to the study of nationalism that have laid the foundation for two separate, yet prevalent suppositions toward nationalism: Anthony Smith’s primordial approach and Ernest Gellner’s modernist theory. When reviewing the discussions of intellectual masters, it is important to establish the strengths and weaknesses of their arguments before determining a superior concept. Without having any previous knowledge of nationalism, one could easily understand Anthony Smith’s well-organized and cleanly explained argument as he begins with clear definitions of nationalism, nation, and state. Each definition is important as they highlight the fundamental difference between primordialism and modernism: when nationalism began. Smith’s definition of nationalism is an ideological movement that achieves and maintains sovereignty, unity, and the identity of a human population. We will write a custom essay sample on Review of Warwick Debates on Nationalism or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page His definition of a nation is a named population that shares a territory, myths, culture, memories, and offers an economy, common rights, and duties for its population. And his definition of a state is a legal and political concept that is a public institution of coercion and extraction within a territory. Smith’s definitions are essential to his argument of primordial origins of nationalism because the nation represents a fulfillment of the needs presented in a nationalist movement. According to these definitions, a nationalist movement, or nationalism, would be seeking the autonomy, unity, and identity of its community. Thus, this ‘need’ could be fulfilled in Smith’s definition of a nation being a community that shares a historic territory, single economy, common rights, and duties for all members. These definitions take away the political agenda that is often associated with nationalism in the modern period. Another strength of Smith’s case is in his acknowledgment of a form of modern nationalism that began from the need to fulfill the demand that changes in the modern world brought forth. This is where his definition of a state is likewise essential because it then becomes the fulfillment of this new ‘need’ of the people. Smith intently adds that a state is not a community. Herein lies the single most important concept that Smith implies, which is that modern nationalism is a continuation of the heritages, cultures, and territory that are found in pre-modern national communities. Smith refers to this concept as the â€Å"ethno-symbolic approach. † Staying true to his politician technique of covering his footprints, Smith quickly notes that this is not a theory, simply an approach. This gives his approach the flexibility to cover a lot of ground, both chronologically and non-chronologically, without being subject to concentrated scrutiny. Smith terms the ethno-symbolic approach by stating that many, not all, modern political nationalisms cannot be understood without understanding their connection to their ethnic ties and memories, and in some cases, to their pre-modern communities. Smith asserts that the ethno-symbolic approach offers a slight guide as to which populations nationalism will grow among and in what direction such movements may go. Smith notes that the importance of the role of memories, values, myths, and symbols can be seen in the common actions of nationalism by adding that nationalism â€Å"often involves the pursuit of ‘symbolic’ goals – education in a language, †¦ the preservation of ancient sacred sites, the right to worship in one’s own way, have one’s own courts, schools and press, wear particular costume, and so on†¦. Smith concludes his explanation of the ethno-symbolic approach to nationalism by stating that nations and nationals are necessary in the world, and that because people generally have a tie to their nation and feel that their nation fulfills the important political and social needs, it would be near impossible to separate them from their national allegiances. Besides his assertion that nationalism existed before the pre-modern period, Smith distinguishes three major flaws within the modernist theory of nationalism. First, is that such theories are broad and abstract, lacking the ability to relate to specific cases or areas. Next, Smith finds flaw in the theme of materialism that modern nationalism often creates. Smith believes that nationalism can begin in â€Å"all kinds of socioeconomic milieux† and that this materialism is often â€Å"misleading. † However the most dominant flaw in the modernist’s theory is the complete denial of the role ethnic ties and cultural sentiments in nationalism. In an intellectually thrilling contrast, Ernest Gellner responds to Smith’s idea of a pre-modern nationalism by posing the question, â€Å"do nations have navels? † This question literally attempts to find the source of creation of a nation, or ‘do nations have a creator(s)? Gellner strongly establishes that nationalism gave birth to nations, and not vice versa. And nationalism itself does not have an intended creator, as it is a direct result of the economic and scientific changes that ensued with the modern period of the 18th century. Thus, Gellner’s main objective is delineated, that nationalism is a purely modern phenomena. Gellner then defends this concept against what Smith would see as irrefutable evidence written in history by defining the role of culture in history. Gellner separates history into three pockets of time, the pre-agrarian period, agrarian period, and the industrial period. In Gellner’s argument the role of culture in the agrarian society was to place people within an established and stable, hierarchical structure; yet, in contrast, the role of culture in modern society places strong emphasis on a â€Å"literate codified culture,† that Gellner refers to as the ‘high culture. ’ In short, the maintenance of this one’s membership within this educated high culture becomes the focus of culture, which in turn brings in the idea of a state. This responsibility of this maintenance of high culture falls upon an institutional state that can provide education, protection, and finances. Admittedly, it would be difficult for Gellner to make such a case and openly deny the significance or existence of a sense of nationalism before the modern period, but Gellner does just that, stating that not only are most nations ‘navel-less,’ but if they do have a navel, it is entirely irrelevant to the study of nationalism. Gellner is able to make the argument on the grounds that not only could nationalism not exist in the agrarian society, but the presence of ethnic ties in modern nationalism are merely an irrelevant navel to a recently born concept. As previously discussed, Gellner asserts that culture in the agrarian society was vastly different than culture in modern society. Culture in the agrarian society, according to Gellner, was either too small to actually be considered a culture, but rather an intimate community with no real ability (or need) to formulate a political movement, or that the society had too large of communities, like empires, that were made up of various cultures and mini-communities with no real connection to a national identity. The strength of Gellner’s theory lies within the idea that any remnant of heritage or ethnic ties found in modern nationalism are simply the ‘navel,’ of the cycles that began before the creation of the nation that were necessary to its creation, but irrelevant to the study of nationalism. If Gellner had provided substantial evidence, he could have disproven Smith’s case with this one simple concept. Like Anthony Smith’s case, Gellner builds his ideology strongly off of his own definitions of a nation, state, and nationalism. Yet, he does not clearly outline his definitions within the argument, which leads to gaps in his hypothesis (the definition of a state is vaguely outlined, and the primary gap falls within the lack of a definition for a nation). It is my personal opinion that definitions within a debate process are crucial and represent the foundation of one’s concept, thus, because Gellner chose not to properly define his idea of nationalism, nation, and state, his logic is now put into the terms that Smith outlined. This is the first weakness within Gellner’s response. Fortunately, we can refer to Gellner’s second book on nationalism for such definitions of a state, which can be represented by the institution of power that delineates the division of labor and the enforcement of labor, and of a nation, which can be seen as the recognition of two men based on culture within the same nation as well as the recognition of certain rights and duties within this shared community. The next weakness with Gellner’s rebuttal is his focus on the connection of modernism and nationalism. Gellner relies heavily on the impact of his ‘navel’ argument, as it is his main defense against primordialism. Yet, this defense does not answer to the limitations that Smith pointed out in the modernist approach to nationalism. This leads to Gellner’s biggest flaw, and ultimately to his ideas becoming inferior to that of Smith’s within the debate: that Gellner’s concept is too general. The language within Gellner’s argument seems to focus on terms like â€Å"sometimes,† and â€Å"in general,† or â€Å"generalize. † This is problematic because before Gellner even began his rebuttal, Smith accused is theory of being too general and all-inclusive without sufficient proof. In fact Gellner’s only real evidence of modernization giving birth to nationalism is the example of the Estonians creating for themselves a culture out of nothing, he then sums up his evidence with the broad statement, â€Å" it was created by the kind of modernist process which I then generalize for nationalism and nations in general. † This leads to the crowning of the superior argument within the debate: Anthony D. Smith and his ethno-symbolic approach on nationalism. I find Smith’s definitions to be more plausible. These definitions open up the possibility that rather than nationalism being a recent phenomena, it was simply a transformation of nationalism that is being reflected by a change in culture and necessity. This ‘need’ in the pre-modern society was for a nation (because as Gellner pushes, the idea of a state did not yet exist). A nation being a social and cultural, territorial community of shared history and culture with common rights, duties, and a single economy, is the fulfillment that nationalism, the ideological movement for achievement and maintenance of autonomy and identity within a human population. And in the modern society, a state is the fulfillment of the need that is presented by modern nationalism. Thus, nationalism is a continuous throughout history, and modern nationalism can be seen merely as a growth of its original form due to the changes that modern society brought. Another evidence of Smith’s ideological superiority within the debate is Gellner’s lack of evidence to support his main idea. Gellner does not provide enough support to uphold the notion that ethnic ties are simply a ‘navel’ to the modernly born nation. Moreover, Gellner does not properly or thoroughly disprove the existence of pre-modern nationalism. Finally, it is in Smith’s style that he is successful in alluding direct scrutiny because he does not make his claim a definite theory as Gellner does. With a definite and narrow theory, like Gellner presents, it can be easy to bring forth evidence that refutes the theory, and Smith avoids this flaw by including an approach that can explain pre-modern and modern occurrences of nationalism. So it is with Smith that I award the victor of this debate because I find his case solid and I agree with his ideology that while nation-states may be modern, their origins â€Å"can be traced to earlier ethnie. † Benedict Anderson would more than likely strongly disagree with my conclusion. I feel that Anderson would have strongly agreed with Gellner’s concept of the ethnic ties being simply the navel to a modern phenomenon. Anderson would have seen the references to the cultural roots as supplementations to an ‘imagined community’ built by nationalist’s thought. While I would like to say the Brubaker’s heavy critical approach to the study of nationalism would have thrown him either against both Smith or Gellner, or even closer to Gellner in their similar â€Å"anti-myth’ approaches, I am going to say that Brubaker would have agreed with Smith in this particular debate. Brubaker stressed that nationalism was not always state-seeking, saying that he does not â€Å"think nationalism can be well understood as nation-based, state-seeking activity. Brubaker continues that by adding that to focus only on the state seeking nationalism is to â€Å"ignore the infinitely protean nature of nationalist politics. † The final scholar of nationalism that I would like to mention is that of E. J. Hobsbawm. Obviously, Hobsbawm would have supported the theory of Gellner, believing that the term ‘nation’ belonged a â€Å"historically recent period† that related directly to a modern territorial state and having actually derived his definition of nationalism directly from Gellner’s theory. However, I do feel that Hobsbawm would not have placed so little of significance upon the historical influences of heritage and culture. Hobsbawm acknowledged the substantial role that cultural community represented, he just thought it was a modern tool brought about by nationalists as a â€Å"historic mission. † In essence, Hobsbawm believed that nationalism picks and chooses what it needs to survive, and the politicizing of culture was one of those survival tools; consequently, I feel that Hobsbawm would have supported Gellner’s reason.

The Ecology Of A Rain Forest Essays - Biology, Ecology, Symbiosis

The Ecology of a Rain Forest In 1980, the estimated amount of rain forests in the world was 40,000 square miles. This number decreases each year by roughly 1,000 square miles due to construction and the resources being used for profit. It is too bad, because the rain forest is one of the most beautiful places on earth. It is the most diverse, containing the most species of living things, much more than anywhere else, and most have yet to be identified. All rain forests are located on earth's "green belt", that is, the area roughly around the equator that covers all the area from Mexico and the northern area of South America, to Africa, to India, stretching out to Indonesia, the northern tip of Australia and all the way to New Guinea. This area is heavily covered with flora and fauna, and it abounds with life. In a rain forest, it is very wet and it rains everyday or every other day very heavily. There is a high and steady level of heat and moisture. There are some general layers to the rain forest. It starts 135 feet up in the air, with the lofty crowns of the tallest trees in the jungle. They take the most light, heat, rain and the most punishment from the winds. Woodpeckers hunt insects in this layer, and also the black and white Colobus monkey can be found here, ready to launch into the air, using his specially developed tail as a rudder to guide his flight. Beneath this is the second layer of trees, whose crowns form a forest canopy. Rain filters through this canopy, and the top sides of the crowns hold a large amount of ferns and other small plants whose roots never touch soil. They live off the water and nutrients held in the small pockets of the leaves and branches. Tree frogs and chimpanzees live here, burrowing holes to live in the vast vegetation. The third layer is called the "understory". This grows beneath the canopy. The gorilla makes this his regular hangout, also pythons lie here waiting for prey. The dim forest floor teems with life. Termites and ants feed on all the decomposing matter on the ground, and elephants make their way down a path of moss. Butterflies move silently by, and the air is still and very humid. These are the layers that make up the rain forest's complex ecology. In the rest of the essay I will describe some of the life forms found in the rain forest, and ways they affect the environment. In the rain forest, plants develop poisonous alkaloids to protect against insects, and insects develop complex digestive chemistry to overcome these poisons. Some of these plant alkaloids give native Indians great poisons for darts, and to cancer researchers hope for a new medicine. The rain forest root systems are so efficient that almost all of the nutrients in decaying plants are recycled into new ones. Most roots are found within three inches of the surface in heavy clay or at the surface in sandy soils. Tiny rootlets grow up and attach themselves to leaves. When the leaf decays, minuscule fungi on the rootlets take over and send threadlike projections into the leaf which absorbs all of the leaf's nutrient material. The phosphorous that the fungi produces is taken by the root, and in turn gives the fungus sugars from the tree. Al! so, termites and ants break down the forest litter. ALAM In a small lake in the middle of the rain forest, a small lizard skims across the water away from dangerous prey and attacks its own victim by surprise, yet another marvel of the tropical rain forest. Mutualism occurs in the jungle with a specialized ant and a swollen-thorn acacia. The acacia provides budlike leaflet tips which are called Beltian bodies, which the ants give to their young for food. The insects hollow out the tree's thorns when soft and green and raise their young inside. The acacia doesn't have chemical defenses to repel dangerous and damaging insects and demands pure sunlight for proper growth. The ants patrol the tree day and night. If any insect lands on the tree,